Gen Z vs. Older Adults in Cybersecurity Self-Efficacy: A Quantitative Survey Study

As cybercrime costs are projected to reach $10.5 trillion annually by 2025 and the human factor accounts for 68% of data breaches, understanding variation in cybersecurity self-efficacy (CSE) across demographic groups has become a pressing research priority. Despite a growing body of CSE literature, systematic reviews have identified a near-complete absence of intergenerational comparative frameworks – a significant gap in both theory and practice. This study examines differences in CSE and cyber risk perception between Generation Z (born 1997–2012) and older adults (aged 60+), with gender, income, and digital financial service usage as boundary conditions. A quantitative, cross-sectional survey was conducted in Poland (January 2026) with 307 respondents. Validated Likert-scale instruments measured CSE, risk perception, and attitudes toward digital financial services; hypotheses were tested using Mann-Whitney U tests and Spearman’s rank correlation. Findings confirm that Generation Z exhibits significantly higher CSE than older adults, with the largest gaps concentrated in technically complex behaviors such as VPN use, multi-factor authentication configuration, and password manager utilization. Concurrently, older adults report substantially higher cyber risk perception despite lower self-efficacy, constituting a fear-capability asymmetry consistent with Protection Motivation Theory’s coping deficit mechanism. The income-CSE association was significant only within the older adult subsample. Gender differences in CSE were cohort-specific, with the standard male advantage reversing direction among older adults. These findings highlight the necessity of differentiated, generationally tailored cybersecurity education and policy interventions.